Kufufuza za chikhalidwe chosindikizidwa kumudzi ndikufunsa momwe chitukuko chakumadzulo chimalowerera mdziko lathu.
Bukhu losindikizidwa sichinthu chomwe chimamaliza ntchito yake moyenera komanso moyenera. Bukuli ndichinthu chapadera kwambiri kotero kuti ndi pomwe limalembera, lomwe limalola kuti lingaliro lingotulukanso osakhalapo, nthawi ndi malo. Ku Europe komweko, kupanga makina osindikiza amtunduwu zidapangitsa kuti athe kufikira pazotheka kuthekera kofalitsa zomwe zimaganiziridwa, kudzera munkhani zolembedwa, ndikupatsa chikhalidwe chakumadzulo chimodzi mwazida zake zamphamvu kwambiri. Pogwiritsa ntchito izi, zomwe zidagwiritsidwa ntchito mu Gutenberg's Bible pakati pa 1449 ndi 1556, kutulutsa buku losindikizidwa kudafika pokhwima munthawi yokwanira kutsata kukulira kwa Europe, ndikuwathandiza kutsitsimutsa ndikubwezeretsanso miyambo yachikhalidwe ya Old World mdera komanso mikhalidwe yakutali omwe Spanish adapeza m'maiko aku America.
Kulowera pang'onopang'ono kumpoto
Kutsegulidwa kwa njira yodutsa mkatikati mwa New Spain ndichitsanzo. Camino de la Plata idalumikiza madera a New Spain ndi madera akumpoto, pafupifupi nthawi zonse amadziwika kuchokera kudera lina la migodi kupita kumalo ena, pakati pa madera ochepa okhala ndi anthu ochepa, moopsezedwa ndi magulu ankhanza, ovuta kwambiri komanso osafuna kupezeka kwa Spain kuposa anzawo akumwera. Ogonjetsanso adanyamula chilankhulo chawo, malingaliro awo okongoletsa, njira zawo zoganizira zauzimu zomwe zili mchipembedzo, ndipo malingaliro ambiri anali osiyana kwambiri ndi amwenye omwe adakumana nawo. Pochita pang'ono kuphunzira, komanso osamvetsetsa, zolemba zina zimatithandiza kutsimikizira kuti buku losindikizidwa limatsagana ndi azungu polowera kwawo kumpoto. Ndipo monga zinthu zonse zauzimu ndi zakuthupi zomwe zidabwera nawo, zidafika kumadera awa ndi Royal Path ya Tierra Adentro.
Ziyenera kunenedwa kuti mabukuwo sanayembekezere kukhazikitsidwa kwa njirayo kuti awonekere m'derali, koma adangofika ndi ma incursions oyamba, ngati anzawo omwe sangapeweke patsogolo aku Spain. Zimadziwika kuti Nuño de Guzmán, yemwe adagonjetsa New Galicia, adanyamula buku la Zaka khumi za Tito Livio, mwina kumasulira kwachi Spain komwe kudasindikizidwa ku Zaragoza mu 1520. Milandu ngati ya a Francisco Bueno, omwe adamwalira panjira yochokera ku Chiametla kupita Compostela mu 1574, fotokozani momwe, kuchokera kwa wopambana kwambiri mpaka wogulitsa wolimbikira kwambiri, adapitilizabe kulumikizidwa ndi chitukuko chawo kumadera akutali, kudzera m'makalata. Bueno anatenga pakati pa katundu wake mabuku atatu auzimu: Art of Serving God, Christian Doctrine ndi Vita Expide wa Fray Luis de Granada.
Chilichonse chikuwoneka kuti chikuwonetsa kuti kwanthawi yayitali, kuwerenga ndi kupezeka kwa bukulo mdera lino makamaka kunali kachitidwe ka anthu ochokera ku Europe kapena mbadwa. Pofika theka lachiwiri la zaka za zana la 16, magulu azikhalidwe zakumpoto kwa zigawo zapakati adapitilizabe kulumikizana pang'ono ndi chinthu chakunja, ngakhale adakopeka ndi zifanizo.
Izi zikuwululidwa ndi chikalata chofunsira mafunso kuyambira 1561, chomwe ndichizindikiro chofalitsa mabuku ambiri koyambirira. Atalandira lamuloli kuchokera ku Guadalajara kuti akachezere Real de Minas de Zacatecas, kuti akapeze ntchito zoletsedwa, wolowa m'malo mwa Bachiller Rivas adapeza mwa "Aspanya ndi anthu ena a migodi iyi" mabuku okwanira kuti adzaze matumba atatu a iwo, zomwe zimavumbula kuti zomwe zidasindikizidwa sizinali zochepa. Kusungidwa mu sacristy ya tchalitchi kupita nawo ku Guadalajara, Sacristan Antón - wa Purépecha adachokera- limodzi ndi mchimwene wake ndi mnzake wina waku India, adatsegula phukusili ndikuyamba kufalitsa zomwe zili mkati mwa Amwenye ena. Bukuli limasocheretsa chifukwa lingatipangitse kuti tivomereze chidwi chamabuku m'mabuku popanda kuwonjezerapo zina. Koma Anton ndi amwenye ena omwe adafunsidwa adavomereza kuti samatha kuwerenga, ndipo sacristan adalengeza kuti adatenga mabukuwo kuti awone ziwerengero zomwe zilimo.
Kulakalaka zida zowerengera zomwe zimaganiziridwa nthawi zina kunakwaniritsidwa ndi njira zosiyanasiyana. Nthawi zambiri, mabukuwa ankanyamulidwa monga zotsatira zaumwini, ndiye kuti mwiniwakeyo adatenga nawo kuchokera kumadera ena ngati gawo la katundu wake. Koma nthawi zina adasunthidwa ngati gawo lamalonda amalonda omwe adachokera ku Veracruz, komwe kutumiza mabuku kulikonse kumayang'aniridwa mosamala ndi akuluakulu a Inquisition, makamaka kuyambira 1571, pomwe Office Woyera idakhazikitsidwa ku Indies. kuletsa kufalikira kwa malingaliro Achiprotestanti. Pambuyo pake - pafupifupi nthawi zonse atayima ku Mexico City - mawonekedwe adapeza njira yawo kudzera pakatikati mwa wogulitsa mabuku. Omalizawo amawatumiza ku gulu lachidwi, ndikuwapereka kwa dalaivala wa nyulu yemwe adanyamula mabukuwo kumpoto kumbuyo kwa bulu, m'mabokosi otetezedwa ndi matumba okutidwa ndi zikopa kuteteza nyengo ndi ngozi panjira kuti zisawononge katundu wosakhwima wotere. Mabuku onse omwe amapezeka kumpoto adafika kumadera akumpoto munjira zina izi, ndipo kupezeka kwawo m'malo opezeka msewu kumatha kulembedwa kuyambira theka lachiwiri la zaka za zana la 16 ku Zacatecas, komanso kuyambira zaka za zana la 17 m'malo ngati Durango. , Parral ndi New Mexico. Zogwiritsidwa ntchito ndipo nthawi zina zimakhala zatsopano, mabukuwa adachokera kutali kuchokera komwe adachokera ku malo ogulitsa ku Europe, kapena kuchokera ku Mexico City. Izi zidapitilira mpaka zaka khumi zachitatu za 19th century, pomwe osindikiza ena oyenda adafika kumaderawa nthawi yankhondo kapena itatha.
Mbali yamalonda
Kulemba zomwe zikuchitika pakufalitsa mabukuwa, ndichinthu chovuta kuchita chifukwa mabukuwo sanalipire msonkho wa alcabala, kotero kuti kuchuluka kwawo sikunapange zolemba za boma. Zilolezo zambiri zonyamula mabuku kupita kumigodi komwe kumapezeka m'malo osungira zinthu zakale zikufanana ndi theka lachiwiri la zaka za zana la 18, pomwe kukhala tcheru pakufalitsa nkhani zidalimbikitsidwa kuti zisasokoneze malingaliro a Chidziwitso. M'malo mwake, maumboni omwe akukhudzana ndikufalitsa katundu wakufa - maumboni - komanso kuwongolera malingaliro omwe amafunidwa kuti akhazikitsidwe poyang'anira kufalitsa kwa zinthu zosindikizidwa, ndizo ntchito zomwe nthawi zambiri zimatiwuza mtundu wamalemba omwe amafalitsidwa ku Camino de La Plata kudera lomwe limalumikizana.
Mwachidule, zosonkhanitsa zazikulu kwambiri zomwe zidalipo nthawi yachikoloni zinali zomwe zidasonkhanitsidwa m'matchalitchi a Franciscan ndi Jesuit. Mwachitsanzo, Zacatecas College of Propaganda Fide, inali ndi mabuku opitilira 10,000. Kumbali yake, laibulale ya maJesuit a Chihuahua, omwe adalembedwa mu 1769, anali ndi mayina opitilira 370 - omwe nthawi zina anali ndi mabuku angapo-, osawerengera omwe adagawanika chifukwa anali oletsedwa kapena chifukwa anali atawonongeka kale. . Laibulale ya Celaya inali ndi mabuku 986, pomwe ya San Luis de la Paz inafika pa ntchito 515. M'malo otsala a laibulale ya Jesuit College of Parras, mu 1793 adadziwika kuposa 400. Zosonkhanitsa izi zidachuluka kwambiri zothandiza kuchiritsa mizimu komanso ntchito yachipembedzo yochitidwa ndi akatswiri. Chifukwa chake, ma miss, ma breviaries, antiphonaries, Mabaibulo ndi zolemba za ulaliki zimafunikira zomwe zili mu malaibulale awa. Zolemba zomwe zidasindikizidwazo zidathandizanso pakulimbikitsa mapembedzedwe pakati pa anthu wamba mwa mawonekedwe a novenas ndi miyoyo ya oyera mtima. Mwakutero, bukuli linali lothandiza losasunthika komanso chitsogozo chofunikira chotsatira zochitika zonse zachipembedzo chachikhristu (misa, pemphero) padera pa zigawozi.
Koma mtundu wa ntchito yaumishonale udafunanso chidziwitso chambiri chadziko. Izi zikufotokozera kupezeka m'malaibulale amenewa a madikishonale ndi magalamala othandizira podziwa zinenero zokhazokha; za mabuku a zakuthambo, mankhwala, opareshoni ndi zitsamba zomwe zinali mulaibulale ya Colegio de Propaganda Fide de Guadalupe; kapena buku la De Re Metallica lolembedwa ndi Jorge Agrícola - wodalirika kwambiri pa migodi ndi zachitsulo za nthawiyo - lomwe linali m'mabuku a maJesuit a ku Msonkhano wa Zacatecas. Zizindikiro zamoto zomwe zidapangidwa m'mphepete mwa mabukuwo, zomwe zidazindikiritsa zomwe ali nazo ndikupewa kuba, zimawulula kuti mabukuwa adafika kunyumba za amonke osati kugula kokha, monga gawo la mphatso zomwe Korona idapereka, chifukwa Mwachitsanzo, kwa amishonale aku Franciscan, koma nthawi zina, atawatumiza ku nyumba zina za amonke, ma friar adatenga mabuku kuchokera ku malaibulale ena kuti athandizane ndi zosowa zawo zakuthupi ndi zauzimu. Zolembedwa pamasamba amabukuwa zimatiphunzitsanso kuti, popeza anali ndi munthu wina wanzeru, mabuku ambiri adakhala achipembedzo pakamwalira omwe adakhala nawo.
Ntchito zamaphunziro
Ntchito zophunzitsira zomwe ma fri, makamaka maJesuit, adadzipereka okha, zimafotokoza zamatchulidwe ambiri omwe amapezeka mulaibulale yamatchalitchi. Gawo labwino la izi linali mabuku okhudzana ndi zaumulungu, ndemanga zamaphunziro pamalemba a m'Baibulo, maphunziro ndi ndemanga za filosofi ya Aristotle, ndi zolemba zamatsenga, ndiye kuti, mtundu wodziwa zomwe panthawiyo zinali miyambo yayikulu yodziwa kuwerenga ndi kulemba awa aphunzitsi amayang'anira. Popeza kuti ambiri mwa malembowa anali m'Chilatini, 'ndipo maphunziro ataliatali omwe amafunikira kuti aphunzire zamalamulo, zamulungu, ndi filosofi, zidapangitsa kuti izi zikhale zoletsedwa kotero kuti zimatha kutha mosavuta pomwe mabungwewo adasowa. kumene zidalimidwa. Lamulo lachipembedzo litatha, gawo lalikulu la malaibulale amisala anali omwe anachitidwa zofunkha kapena kunyalanyazidwa, kotero kuti ochepa okha ndi omwe apulumuka, ndipo awa mwanjira zochepa.
Ngakhale zopereka zodziwika bwino zinali m'mabwalo amonke ofunikira kwambiri, tikudziwa kuti ma friars adanyamula mabuku ochulukirapo ngakhale kumadera akutali kwambiri. Mu 1767, pomwe bungwe la Society of Jesus lidatulutsidwa, mabuku omwe analipo m'misasa isanu ndi inayi ku Sierra Tarahumara adakwaniritsa 1,106 mavoliyumu. Ntchito ya San Borja, yomwe inali ndi mabuku ambiri, inali ndi mabuku 71, ndipo a Temotzachic, omwe adasankhidwa kwambiri, ndi 222.
Anthu wamba
Ngati kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa mabuku mwachilengedwe kunali kwachipembedzo, kugwiritsa ntchito komwe anthu omwe adapereka kwa omwe adasindikizidwa kumawulula kwambiri, chifukwa kutanthauzira komwe adapanga pazomwe amawerenga zinali zotsatira zochepa kuposa zomwe zidachitika ndi omwe anali akuphunzira kusukulu. Kukhala ndi mabuku ndi anthuwa nthawi zambiri kumatsatiridwa chifukwa cha zolembedwa, zomwe zikuwonetsanso njira ina yoyendetsera mabuku. Ngati womwalirayo anali ndi mabuku ali moyo, amawagulitsa mosamala ndi chuma chawo chonse. Mwanjira imeneyi mabuku amasintha eni ake, ndipo nthawi zina amapitiliza ulendo wawo wopita kumpoto.
Mndandanda womwe umaphatikizidwa ndi chifuniro sichikhala chokulirapo. Nthawi zina pamakhala mavoliyumu awiri kapena atatu okha, ngakhale nthawi zina chiwerengerocho chimakwera mpaka makumi awiri, makamaka kwa iwo omwe ntchito zachuma zawo zimakhazikitsidwa chifukwa chodziwa kulemba ndi kuwerenga. Nkhani yapadera ndi ya Diego de Peñalosa, kazembe wa Santa Fe de Nuevo México pakati pa 1661-1664. Anali ndi mabuku pafupifupi 51 mu 1669, pomwe malo ake adalandidwa. Mndandanda waukulu kwambiri umapezeka ndendende pakati pa akuluakulu achifumu, madotolo ndi akatswiri azamalamulo. Koma kunja kwa zolemba zomwe zimathandizira ntchito yaukadaulo, mabuku omwe amasankhidwa mwaulere ndiosangalatsa mosiyanasiyana. Kapenanso mndandanda wawung'ono usasokeretse, chifukwa, monga tawonera, mavoliyumu ochepa omwe adalipo adayamba kuwonjezeka kwambiri akawerengedwa mobwerezabwereza, ndipo izi zidakwezedwa kudzera mu ngongole komanso ndemanga zomwe zimachitika nthawi zonse. .
Ngakhale kuwerenga kunapereka zosangalatsa, sikuyenera kuganiziridwa kuti zosokoneza ndizo zotsatira zokha za mchitidwewu. Chifukwa chake, pankhani ya Nuño de Guzmán, ziyenera kukumbukiridwa kuti zaka makumi khumi za Tito Livio ndi nkhani yolemekezeka komanso yopatsa chidwi, pomwe Renaissance Europe idazindikira osati momwe mphamvu zankhondo ndi ndale zidamangidwira ya Roma Wakale, koma za kukula kwake. Livy, wopulumutsidwa Kumadzulo ndi Petrarch, anali amodzi mwa omwe amawerengedwa kwambiri ndi Machiavelli, zomwe zidamulimbikitsa kulingalira za mphamvu zandale. Siko kutali kuti kufotokozera kwake kwa ma epic, monga a Hannibal kudzera m'mapiri a Alps, kudali kofananira kwa wolakika ku Indies. Titha kukumbukira pano kuti dzina la California ndikufufuza kwakumpoto kufunafuna El Dorado zinalinso zojambula zochokera m'buku: gawo lachiwiri la Amadís de Gaula, lolembedwa ndi García Rodríguez de Montalvo. Malo ambiri angafunike pofotokozera ma nuances ndikuwunikanso mayendedwe osiyanasiyana omwe wokwerayo, bukuli, adachita. Mizere iyi imangofuna kufotokozera owerenga kudziko lenileni komanso longoyerekeza lomwe bukuli ndikuwerenga zidatulutsa kumpoto kwa New Spain.
